Climate Governance: Comparing Centralized and Decentralized Approaches

Sandra Ingelkofer; Renata Faizova

doi:10.52536/3006-807X.2025-3.002

Authors

Sandra Ingelkofer University of Birmingham, United Kingdom Author https://orcid.org/0009-0005-0426-143X
Renata Faizova University of British Columbia, Canada Author https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1321-8530

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.52536/3006-807X.2025-3.002

Keywords:

climate governance, climate policy, China, the USA, Türkiye, Canada, Central Asia

Abstract

Climate governance is entering a period of turbulence, with policy reversals in some democracies and rapid expansions elsewhere. This paper compares how centralized, decentralized (federal), and polycentric/hybrid governance designs shape mitigation and adaptation outcomes. Using a qualitative comparative approach across China, the United States, Canada, Türkiye, Norway, and Saudi Arabia, assessing policy ambition, legal instruments, implementation capacity, subnational authority, stakeholder participation, finance mobilization, and equity considerations. A qualitative comparative approach is applied across six country cases - China, the United States, Canada, Türkiye, Norway, and Saudi Arabia - evaluating policy ambition, legal instruments, implementation capacity, subnational authority, stakeholder participation, finance mobilization, and equity considerations. Insights are then extended to the Central Asian context, where climate governance remains predominantly centralized, shaped by Soviet-era institutional legacies, uneven local capacity, and constrained civic participation. The analysis demonstrates that no model is universally superior; the most effective arrangements combine top-down coherence with bottom-up experimentation and social legitimacy. Norway’s polycentric governance model and Türkiye’s hybrid approach illustrate how localized climate planning can be integrated within broader national frameworks. For Central Asia, pragmatic hybrid pathways are recommended that align national targets and financing with empowered regional pilots, transparent monitoring, and inclusive engagement. These context-sensitive combinations offer the best prospects for durable emissions reductions, climate resilience, and just transition outcomes in the region.

Author Biographies

Sandra Ingelkofer, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom

School of Law, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom; Department of Administrative Law, Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Ukraine
Renata Faizova, University of British Columbia, Canada

Department of Central, Eastern and Northern European Studies, University of British Columbia, Canada

References

Aberley, D. (1999). Interpreting bioregionalism: A story from many voices. In M. V. McGinnis (Ed.), Bioregionalism (pp. 13-42). Routledge.

Alberta Electric System Operator. (2023). Alberta's power system in transition. https://www.aeso.ca/future-of-electricity/albertas-power-system-in-transition

Asselt, H. van, & Zelli, F. (2013). Connect the dots: Managing the fragmentation of global climate governance. Environmental Economics and Policy Studies, 15(4), 409-430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10018-013-0060-z

Bache, I., & Flinders, M. (2004). Multi-level governance. Oxford University Press.

Bauer, S., Busch, P.-O., & Siebenhüner, B. (2007). Administering international governance: What role for treaty secretariats? Global Governance, 13(1), 23-36.

BC Hydro. (2023). Our clean system. https://www.bchydro.com/toolbar/about/sustainability/our-clean-system.html

Bednar, J. (2008). The robust federation: Principles of design. Cambridge University Press.

Bennett, N. J., & Satterfield, T. (2018). Environmental governance: A practical framework to guide design, evaluation, and analysis. Conservation Letters, 11(3), e12404. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12404

Blue, G., & Dusyk, N. (2022a). Climate governance in Canada: Shifting power, structures, and ideas. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 55(1), 120-138.

Blue, G., & Dusyk, N. (2022b). Equity and inclusion in climate governance: The role of marginalized voices. Global Environmental Politics, 22(2), 45-66.

Bossuyt, F. (2023). The importance of boosting societal resilience in the fight against climate change in central Asia. In Climate Change in Central Asia: Decarbonization, Energy Transition and Climate Policy (pp. 149-159). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/63009/1/978-3-031-29831-8.pdf#page=149

Boyd, D. R., & Rabe, B. G. (2019). Canada and the Kyoto Protocol: A cautionary tale. In B. G. Rabe (Ed.), Can we price carbon? (pp. 85-104). MIT Press.

Browne, K. (2022). Rethinking governance in international climate finance: Structural change and alternative approaches. WIREs Climate Change, 13(1), e795. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.795

Bulkeley, H., Andonova, L. B., Bäckstrand, K., Betsill, M., Compagnon, D., Duffy, R., Kolk, A., Hoffmann, M., Levy, D., Newell, P., Milledge, T., & Paterson, M. (2012). Governing climate change transnationally: Assessing the evidence from a database of sixty initiatives. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 30(4), 591-612. https://doi.org/10.1068/c11126

Canada Energy Regulator. (2023a). Market snapshot: Indigenous ownership of Canadian renewable energy projects is growing. https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-markets/market-snapshots/2023/market-snapshot-indigenous-ownership-canadian-renewable-energy-projects-growing.html

Canada Energy Regulator. (2023b). Provincial and territorial energy profiles - Alberta. https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-markets/provincial-territorial-energy-profiles/provincial-territorial-energy-profiles-alberta.html

Carlson, A. E. (2009). Iterative federalism and climate change. Northwestern University Law Review, 103(3), 1097-1161.

Carnegie Endowment. (2023). Climate activism and civil society in the MENA region. https://carnegieendowment.org

Catherine, P., & Sébastien, J. (2015). Acting on climate change: Solutions from 60 Canadian scholars.

Challe, S., Christopoulos, S., Kull, M., & Meuleman, L. (2018). Steering the poverty-environment nexus in Central Asia: A metagovernance analysis of the Poverty-Environment Initiative (PEI). Development Policy Review, 36(4), 409-431. https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12237

Chesler, A., Javeline, D., Peh, K., & Scogin, S. (2023). Is democracy the answer to intractable climate change? Global Environmental Politics, 23(4), 201-216. https://doi.org/10.1162/glep_a_00710

Climate Action Tracker. (2023). United States. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/usa/

Climate Action Tracker. (2024). Norway - Policies & action. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/norway/policies-action/

Cole, D. H. (2011). From global to polycentric climate governance. Climate Law, 2(3), 395-413.

Cui, L., Hunt, A., & Morley, B. (2021). The effectiveness of environmental spending in China and the environmental Kuznets curve. Sustainability, 13(21), 12141. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132112141

Demirci, B., & Karabulut Uçar, E. (2024). Role of public institutions and soft law in climate change governance after Paris Agreement: European Green Deal as a catalyst and the change in the administrative and legal set-ups in the case of Türkiye. Ankara Avrupa Çalışmaları Dergisi, 23(2), 229-259. https://doi.org/10.32450/aacd.1491546

Demirci, M., & Karabulut Uçar, S. (2024). Reconfiguring climate governance in Türkiye: Between centralization and local participation. Turkish Journal of Climate Policy, 5(1), 67-85.

Duff, D. G., Gignac, M., & Smith, C. (2007). Federal and provincial tax treatment of the clean energy sector in Canada: Policies and barriers. Canadian Tax Journal, 55(1), 1-63.

European Commission. (2024). Global greenhouse gas emissions: EDGAR Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research. https://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/report_2024

Energy Information Administration (EIA). (2024). Norway: Country analysis. U.S. Energy Information Administration. https://www.eia.gov/international/analysis/country/NOR

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2024). State climate policy tracker. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/statelocalenergy

Falck, R. (2023). How politicians and the population attribute responsibility for climate change mitigation: No indication of a ‘governance trap’ in Norway. Environmental Politics, 32(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2023.2274721

Fauchald, O. K., & Gulbrandsen, L. H. (2023). Paradoxes of Norway's energy transition: Controversies and justice. Climate Policy, 23(2), 123-135.

Feng, K., et al. (2023). Emissions governance and public participation in China's carbon market evolution. Environmental Policy Journal, 45(3), 311-334.

Feng, R., Hu, L., Hu, X., & Fang, X. (2023). Knowledge gaps are making it harder to formulate national climate policies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(23). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2218563120

Gough, I. (2013). Climate change, social policy, and global governance. Journal of International and Comparative Social Policy, 29(3), 185-203. https://doi.org/10.1080/21699763.2013.852128

Government of Canada. (2025). Removing the consumer carbon price, effective April 1, 2025. Department of Finance Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/department-finance/news/2025/03/removing-the-consumer-carbon-price-effective-april-1-2025.html

Gallagher, K. S., Zhang, F., Orvis, R., Rissman, J., & Liu, Q. (2019). Assessing the policy gaps for achieving China’s climate targets in the Paris Agreement. Nature Communications, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09159-0`

Harrison, K. (2023). Climate governance and federalism in Canada. In A. D. Jordan, R. O. Keohane, & E. Ostrom (Eds.), Governing Climate Change: Polycentricity in Action? (pp. 64-83). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009249676.005

Hey, E. (2006). International institutions and global environmental governance. Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting, 100, 339-341. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272503700024538

Hoffmann, M. J. (2011). Climate governance at the crossroads: Experimenting with a global response after Kyoto. Oxford University Press.

Hölscher, K., & Frantzeskaki, N. (2020). Climate governance and urban resilience. In N. Frantzeskaki (Ed.), Research handbook on urban transitions (pp. 17-38).

International Energy Agency (IEA). (2024). Norway: Energy mix. International Energy Agency. https://www.iea.org/countries/norway

International Energy Agency (IEA). (2024). World energy investment 2024. https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-investment-2024

International Energy Agency (IEA). (2023). Energy efficiency indicators for Saudi Arabia. https://iea.org

Inglesi-Lotz, R., Oosthuizen, A. M., Jumaniyazova, S., Kuziboev, B., & Liu, J. (2024). Exploring the impact of women governance on CO₂ emissions in the European Union and Central Asia. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 14(3), 639-646. https://econjournals.com/index.php/ijeep/article/view/15933

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2022). Sixth Assessment Report. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2022). Climate change 2022: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the IPCC. Cambridge University Press.

Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality. (2023). Istanbul climate change action plan. https://cevre.ibb.istanbul/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/istanbul_climate_change_action_plan_v03.pdf

Izmir Metropolitan Municipality. (2023). 2030 Climate Neutrality Action Plan. https://netzerocities.app/_content/files/knowledge/4184/izmir_nzc_ccc_ok.pdf

Massachusetts Clean Energy Center. (2024). Net zero by 2050 roadmap. https://www.masscec.com/net-zero

Murombedzi, J., & Chikozho, C. (2023). Westphalian sovereignty and the free-rider conundrum in the atmospheric commons: Examining global governance regimes for addressing climate change adaptation. International Journal of the Commons, 17(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.5334/ijc.1159

Mirzabaev, A. (2023). Climate change research gaps in Central Asia: Towards a social science agenda. Central Asian Journal of Environmental Science and Policy, 1(2), 55-72.

New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA). (2024). Climate Act implementation updates. https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/CLCPA

North, D. C. (1990). Institutions, institutional change and economic performance. Cambridge University Press.

Norwegian Ministry of Climate and Environment. (2021). Norway’s climate action plan for 2021-2030.

https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/a78ecf5ad2344fa5ae4a394412ef8975/en-gb/pdfs/stm202020210013000engpdfs.pdf

Norwegian Petroleum Directorate. (2024). Exports of oil and gas. https://www.norskpetroleum.no/en/production-and-exports/exports-of-oil-and-gas

Paavola, J. (2005). Seeking justice: International environmental governance and climate change. Globalizations, 2(3), 309-322. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747730500367850

Potvin, C., & Jodoin, S. (2015). Advancing Canada’s climate policy through carbon pricing and regulations. Policy Options. https://policyoptions.irpp.org

Qi, Y., Stern, N., He, J.-K., Lu, J.-Q., Liu, T.-L., King, D., & Wu, T. (2020). The policy-driven peak and reduction of China’s carbon emissions. Advances in Climate Change Research, 11(2), 65-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.accre.2020.05.008

Rahman, S., Alharthi, A., & Hossain, M. (2022). A critical temporal analysis of Saudi Arabia’s initiatives for greenhouse gas emissions reduction in the energy sector. Energy Reports, 8, 1105-1118.

Rabe, B. G. (2011). Greenhouse governance: Addressing climate change in America. Brookings Institution Press.

Rabe, B. G. (2011). Contested federalism and American climate policy. Publius: The Journal of Federalism, 41(3), 494-521.

Ren, Y. (2022). Centralization or decentralization? The future of global climate governance. In Proceedings of the 2021 International Conference on Social Development and Media Communication (pp. 161-165). Atlantis Press. https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125968673.pdf

Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change (MEUCC). (2021a). 2053 net sıfır emisyon hedefimize giden yolda uzun dönemli stratejimizi hazırlıyoruz [We are preparing our long-term strategy for the 2053 net zero emissions target]. https://iklim.gov.tr/2053-net-sifir-emisyonhedefimize-giden-yolda-uzun-donemli-stratejimizi-hazirliyoruz-haber-33

Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change (MEUCC). (2022). Güncellenmiş birinci ulusal katkı beyanı sunuldu [Updated first nationally determined contribution submitted]. https://www.iklim.gov.tr/guncellenmis-birinci-ulusal-katki-beyani-sunuldu-haber-1139

Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Trade. (2021). Turkey Green Deal Action Plan. https://ticaret.gov.tr/data/60f1200013b876eb28421b23/MUTABAKAT%20YE%C5%9E%C4%B0L.pdf

Reuters. (2025, January 2). In Norway, nearly all new cars sold in 2024 were fully electric. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/norway-nearly-all-new-cars-sold-2024-were-fully-electric-2025-01-02/

Rivers, N., & Jaccard, M. (2005). Canada's efforts towards greenhouse gas emission reduction: a case study on the limits of voluntary action and subsidies. International journal of global energy issues, 23(4), 307-323.

Sabyrbekov, R., Overland, I., & Vakulchuk, R. (2023). Climate change in Central Asia: Decarbonization, energy transition and climate policy (p. 170). Springer Nature.

San Francisco Chronicle. (2025, May 22). The Senate just gutted California's signature climate change policy. San Francisco Chronicle. https://www.sfchronicle.com/politics/article/california-electric-vehicle-mandate-revoke-senate-20339272.php

Saudi Green Initiative (SGI). (2023). Carbon capture projects and emission goals. https://www.sgi.gov.sa

Saudi Vision 2030. (2023). National Renewable Energy Program: Project status and goals. https://www.vision2030.gov.sa

Scott, D., Lemphers, N., & MacNeil, R. (2023). Decentralization and climate governance: Learning from Canadian provincial innovation. Environmental Politics, 32(3), 379-402.

Scott, W. A., Rhodes, E., & Hoicka, C. (2023). Multi-level climate governance: Examining impacts and interactions between national and sub-national emissions mitigation policy mixes in Canada. Climate Policy, 23(8), 1004-1018. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2185586

Skalamera, M. (2024). The varying levels of contrasting adaptation in Central Asia’s climate change politics. Central Asian Survey, 44(1), 85-104. https://doi.org/10.1080/02634937.2024.2373086

Tskhay, A. (2023). Emerging polycentric governance in Central Asia: The role of local communities and eco-entrepreneurs. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 25(4), 621-638.

The Verge. (2025, May 22). Senate Republicans vote to revoke California’s right to set its own tailpipe pollution rules. The Verge. https://www.theverge.com/news/672092/senate-republican-vote-car-truck-pollution-ev-waiver-california

U.S. Department of Energy. (2022). Inflation Reduction Act of 2022. https://www.energy.gov/lpo/inflation-reduction-act-2022

U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). (2024). State energy profiles. https://www.eia.gov/state/

UNDP. (2025). Tackling climate misinformation and disinformation. United Nations Development Programme. https://climatepromise.undp.org

Vakulchuk, R., Daloz, A. S., Overland, I., Sagbakken, H. F., & Standal, K. (2023). A void in Central Asia research: climate change. Central Asian Survey, 42(1), 1-20.

Vox. (2025, May 23). The GOP says states' rights matter - unless it’s California. Vox. https://www.vox.com/climate/414243/senate-california-electric-vehicles-gas-car-ban-repeal

Washington Post. (2025, May 23). Clean energy cash gushing into red states puts GOP senators in a bind. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2025/05/23/senate-clean-energy-tax-credits/

Winter, J. (2024). Exploring the landscape of Canadian climate policy. Canadian Public Policy, 50(S1), 73-102.

Winter, J. (2024). The evolution of climate policy instruments in Canada: Political economy, federalism, and institutional design. Energy Policy, 180, 113728.

World Bank. (2022). Kazakhstan: Country climate and development report. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/38190

World Bank. (2022). Administrative decentralization and climate change: Concepts, experiences, and opportunities. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/099040001252284476/p1725690d761df0fa08f5e0c9bd504c19ae

World Bank. (2023). CO₂ emissions (metric tons per capita). World Development Indicators. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.CO2E.PC

World Bank. (2023a). Climate and development report for Central Asia. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/40384

World Bank. (2023b). Europe and Central Asia economic update: Coping with shocks, adapting to climate change. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/39761

World Nuclear News. (2024). Nuclear at heart of Ontario growth plans. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Nuclear-at-heart-of-Ontario-growth-plans

Wu, S. (2023). A systematic review of climate policies in China: Evolution, effectiveness, and challenges. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 99, 107030. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2022.107030

Wu, Y. (2023). Climate centralism in China: Innovation with limited civic engagement. Climate Governance Review, 12(2), 145-169.

Wu, Z., Huang, X., Chen, R., Mao, X., & Qi, X. (2022). The United States and China on the paths and policies to carbon neutrality. Journal of Environmental Management, 320, 115785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115785

Xue, J., & Poon, J. P. H. (2024). Transition of China’s global energy investment: Decarbonization, dispersion and denationalization. Transactions in Energy and Sustainability, 1(1), 5-23. https://doi.org/10.1177/29768632241293400

Zurba, M., et al. (2021). Indigenous climate leadership in Canada: Bridging governance gaps through self-determination and place-based knowledge. Climate Policy, 21(4), 478-494.